List of glossing abbreviations
This page lists common abbreviations for grammatical terms that are used in linguistic interlinear glossing.
The list provides conventional glosses as established by standard inventories of glossing abbreviations such as the Leipzig Glossing rules,[1] the most widely known standard. These will generally be the glosses used on Wikipedia. Synonymous glosses are listed as alternatives for reference purposes. In a few cases, long and short standard forms are listed, intended for texts where that gloss is rare or common.
For interlinear glossing in Wikipedia, see templates {{interlinear}}, {{Gcl}} and Module:Interlinear/data.
Conventions
- Grammatical abbreviations are generally written in full or small caps to visually distinguish them from the translations of lexical words. For instance, (small) cap -DOWN might be a locative suffix used in nominal inflections, prototypically indicating direction downward but possibly also used where it is not translatable as 'down' in English, whereas lower-case 'down' would be a direct English translation of a word meaning 'down'.[2] English words used in full as glosses in this way are not included in the list below. Caution is needed with short glosses like AT, BY, TO and UP, which could potentially be either glossing abbreviations or unabbreviated English prepositions used as glosses.
- Transparent compounds of the glosses below, such as REMPST or REM.PST 'remote past', a compound of REM 'remote' and PST 'past', are not listed separately.
- Abbreviations beginning with N- (generalized glossing prefix for non-, in-, un-) are not listed separately unless they have alternative forms that are included. For example, NPST non-past is not listed, as it is composable from N- non- + PST past. This convention is grounded in the Leipzig Glossing Rules.[1] Some authors use a lower-case n, for example nH for 'non-human'.[3]
- Person-number-gender is often further abbreviated, in which case the elements are not small caps. E.g. 3ms or 3msg for 3SG.M, 2fp or 2fpl for 2PL.F, also 1di for 1DU.INCL and 1pe for 1PL.EXCL.[4] (3SG.N should be fully abbreviated to 3ns to avoid confusion with 3NSG [3 non-singular].)
- Authors may more severely abbreviate glosses than is the norm, if they are particularly frequent within a text, e.g. IP rather than IMM.PST for 'immediate past'. This helps keep the gloss graphically aligned with the parsed text when the abbreviations are longer than the morphemes they gloss. Such shortened forms may be ambiguous with other authors or texts are so are not presented as normative here. Glosses may also be less abbreviated than the norm if they are not common in a particular text, so as to not tax the reader, e.g. TRANSTVZR for 'transitivizer'. At the extreme, glosses may not be abbreviated at all but simply written in small caps, e.g. COMPLEMENTIZER, NONTHEME or DOWNRIVER rather than COMP, NTH, DR.[5] Such forms have been omitted from the list of alternative forms below, but are always possible.
- When a morpheme is difficult to gloss, authors may sometimes use it in (small) caps as its own gloss. For example, if a language has a prefix sh- with multiple or subtle meanings that would be impractical to gloss using normal conventions, it may be glossed simply as itself (SH-) and explained elsewhere.
- Lexical morphemes are typically translated, using lower-case letters, though they may be given a grammatical gloss in small caps if they play a grammatical role in the text. Exceptions include proper nouns, which typically are not translated, and kinship terms, which may be too complex to translate. Proper nouns/names may simply be repeated in the gloss, or may be replaced with a placeholder such as "(name.F)" or "PN.F" (for a female name). For kinship glosses, see below for a list of standard abbreviations.
- Lehmann recommends that abbreviations for syntactic roles not be used as glosses for arguments, as they are not morphological categories. Glosses for case should be used instead, e.g. ERG or NOM for A.[6] These abbreviations are typically typeset as full capitals even when small caps are used for glosses, and include A (agent of transitive verb), B (core benefactive), D (core dative), E (experiencer of sensory verb),[7] G (goal),[8] L (location argument),[9] R (recipient – indirect object of ditransitive verb),[8] O or P or U (patient/undergoer of transitive verb), S (single argument of intransitive verb), SA and SP (agent- and patient-like argument in split-S alignment),[10] and T (theme – direct object of ditransitive verb).[9]
- These abbreviations are, however, commonly used as the basis for glosses of 'trigger' morphemes (also called 'focus' or – inaccurately – 'voice' morphemes), such as AT (agent trigger), BF (beneficiary 'focus'), LV (locative 'voice'). See Austronesian alignment § Properties.
- Glosses for generic concepts like 'particle', 'infix', 'tense', 'object marker' and the like are generally to be avoided in favor of specifying the precise value of the morpheme. However, they may be appropriate for historical linguistics or language comparison, where the value differs between languages or a more precise meaning cannot be reconstructed.
- Authors also use placeholders for generic elements in schematicized parsing, such as may be used to illustrate morpheme order in a language. Examples include HEAD or HD 'head', ROOT or RT 'root', STEM or ST 'stem', PREF, PRFX or PX 'prefix', SUFF, SUFX or SX 'suffix', CLIT or CL 'clitic', PNG 'person–number–gender element', TAM 'tense–aspect–mood element' (also NG number–gender, PN person–number, TA tense–aspect, TAME tense–aspect–mood–evidential) etc.[1][3]
Glossing abbreviations and meanings
Some sources are moving from classical lative (LAT, -L) terminology to 'directional' (DIR), with concommitant changes in the abbreviations.
Some sources use alternative abbreviations to distinguish e.g. nominalizer from nominalization.[11] These are seldom morphologically distinct categories in a language, but may be distinguished in historical linguistics. They are not listed separately below, as any such distinction tends to be idiosyncratic to the author.
Symbols and numbers
| Conventional Gloss | Variants | Meaning | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| - | separator for segmentable morphemes, e.g., Lezgian amuq’-da-č (stay-FUT-NEG) "will not stay" | [1] | |
| = | ꞊ | [optional in place of hyphen] separator for clitics, e.g., West Greenlandic palasi=lu niuirtur=lu (priest=and shopkeeper=and) "both the priest and the shopkeeper" | [1] |
| . | when a morph is rendered by more than one gloss, the glosses are separated by periods, e.g., French aux chevaux (to.ART.PL horse.PL) "to the horses" A period is not used between person and number, e.g. 1PL, 2SG, 1DU, 3NSG (nonsingular). | [1] | |
| _ | [optional in place of period] when the language of the gloss lacks a one-word translation, a phrase may be joined by underscores, e.g., Turkish çık-mak (come_out-INF) "to come out" | [1] | |
| › | >, →, : | [optional in place of period] direction of polypersonal agreement in a single gloss, whether (a) possession (1S›SG means 1S possessor and singular possessum) or (b) transitivity (2›3 means 2 acts on 3, as in guny-bi-yarluga (2DU›3SG-FUT-poke) "(who) do you two want to spear?" A colon is used by some authors: 1S:SG, 2DU:3SG-FUT-poke. | [1][12][13][4] |
| ; | : | [optional in place of period] separates glosses that are combined in a portmanteau morpheme, as in aux chevaux (to;ART;PL horse;PL) "to the horses". Some authors use the colon indiscriminately for this convention and the next.[14] | [1][14] |
| : | [optional in place of period] separates glosses where segmentation is irrelevant (morphemes may be segmentable, but author does not wish to separate them) | [1] | |
| + | [optional] compound word. (Also used in 1+2 (inclusive) vs 1+3 (exclusive) person; EMPH+ strong emphatic) | [6][15][16] | |
| & | [optional in place of period] cross-referencing: X&Y = X›Y or Y›X or both | [6] | |
| / | alternative meanings of ambiguous morpheme, e.g. 2/3 for a morpheme that may be either 2nd or 3rd person, or DAT/GEN for a suffix used for both dative and genitive. | [17] | |
| \ | [optional in place of period] a morpheme indicated by or affected by mutation, as in Väter-n (father\PL-DAT.PL) "to (our) fathers" (singular form Vater) | [1] | |
| [...] | [optional in place of period] indicates unmarked element (such as fils (son[MSG], which has no suffix for MSG). The null suffix -∅ may be used instead. | [1] | |
| (...) | [optional in place of period] inherent category, such as covert gender (when glossed at all) | [1] | |
| ~ | [required in place of hyphen] marks reduplication (e.g. ITER~Vb is word-initial reduplication that makes the verb iterative) | [1] | |
| ⟨...⟩ | [required in place of hyphen] marks off an infix (e.g. ⟨ITER⟩Vb is word-initial infixation that makes the verb iterative) | [1] | |
| ⟩...⟨ | -...- | [optional in place of hyphens] marks off a circumfix. The second element may be glossed the same as the first, or as CIRC: ge⟩lauf⟨en ⟨PART.PRF⟩run ge⟩lauf⟨en PART.PRF⟩run⟨PART.PRF ge⟩lauf⟨en PART.PRF⟩run⟨CIRC ge-lauf-en PART.PRF-run-PART.PRF ge-lauf-en PART.PRF-run-CIRC. | [6] |
| $ | (second part of a discontinuous lexeme) | [18] | |
| √ | [optional] used by some authors to mark which element is the root (in ⟨x-√y-z⟩, 'y' is the root) | [19][20] | |
| ∅ | 0 | zero (null) morpheme (such as fils-∅ (son-MSG), with a 'zero' suffix for MSG). Brackets may be used instead. | [1][21][6] |
| 1 | first person (1msg, 1fpl, 1EXCL, DEM1 etc.) | [1] | |
| 2 | second person | [1] | |
| 3 | third person (3SG.M or 3msg or 3ms; 3PL.F or 3fpl or 3fp; 3DU.N or 3ndu or 3nd) | [1] | |
| 12, 13 | inclusive, exclusive person (especially if not thought of as a form of 1pl) (rarely further compounded, e.g. 122 for plural rather than dual; 33, 333 for 3du vs 3pl, etc.) | [14][22][17] | |
| 4 | fourth person. = OBV. | [23][24] | |
| I, II, III, IV etc. | noun classes / genders | [25][26][13] | |
| > ≥ < ≤ = ≠ | older, younger, same and different generations: 1SG> 'I' (speaker older than addressee), 2SG≤ 'you' (speaker addressing addressee of same age or younger), 3SG> 's/he' (referent older than (a) speaker or (b) addressee, depending on requirements of discourse), 3DU≠ 'they two' (of different generations, e.g. grandchild and great-grandchild), 1PL= 'we' (of same generation, e.g. me and my siblings) | [22] |
Grammatical abbreviations
| Conventional Gloss | Variants | Meaning | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| -A | athematic (TAMA athematic tense-aspect-mood, ANTA athematic antecedent, etc.) | [27] | |
| AB | from. May be equivalent to ABESS or ABL. Compounded for ABE(SS), ABL(AT), ABEL etc. if a single morpheme, as AB-ESS, AB-LAT or AB-DIR, AB-ELA etc. if not. | [citation needed] | |
| ABESS | ABE, AB | abessive case (AKA caritive case or privative case: 'without') Lehmann (2004) recommends using privative (PRV) or aversive (AVERS) instead[6] | [21][28][29] |
| ABIL | ABL, CAP[citation needed] | (cap)ability (ACQ.ABIL acquired ability, INTR.ABIL intrinsic ability) | [30] |
| ABL | ablative case ('from') | [1] | |
| ABS | ABSOL | absolutive case | [1][11] |
| ABSL | absolute (free, non-incorporated form of noun) | [6] | |
| ABST | AB | abstractive; abstract | [31][7] |
| ABSTR | abstract (of nominal) | [6] | |
| ABSV | absentive (occurring in a place displaced from the deictic centre) | [32] | |
| AC | motion across (as opposed to up/down-hill, -river) | [citation needed] | |
| ACC | AC | accusative case | [1][33] |
| ACCOM | accompanier | [10] | |
| ACP | accomplishment | [34] | |
| ACR | ACT cn? | actor role. Avoid: not the value of a morphological category. | [6] |
| ACT | AC | active voice | [21][6][34] |
| ACT | actual | [27][13] | |
| ACTL | actualizing | [3] | |
| AD | near, by. May be equivalent to ADESS or ALL. Compounded for ADE(SS), (irregular ALL), ADEL etc. if a single morpheme, as AD-ESS, AD-LAT, AD-ELA etc. if not. | [3][2] | |
| ADD | additive case; additive focus | [6][35] | |
| ADDR | addressive; addressee-anchored/orientated | [12][36][3] | |
| ADESS | ADE cn?, ADES | adessive case ('at'; more specific than LOC). See AD. | [7][37][21][6][1][20] |
| ADEL | adelative | [38][6][7] | |
| ADJ | adjective (ADJZ adjectivizer) | [1][39][3] | |
| ADM | ADMON | admonitive mood (warning) | [6][40] |
| ADV | adverb(ial) (ADVZ adverbializer); adverbial case | [1][8][41] | |
| ADV | adversative | [34] | |
| AEQ | EQ, EQL | aequalis (equalis) case (like, as), equational particle, equative (EQA, EQS = active, stative equative) | [42][24][15][37] |
| AF | AV | actor/agent focus, agent voice (=actor voice) (NAF non-actor focus) | [38][43][44] |
| AFF | AFFMT cn?, AFFIRM | affirmative | [21][3] |
| AFF | affective case | [45][13][3] | |
| AFW | away from water (= UH) | [46] | |
| AGN | agent nominalization | [47] | |
| AGR | AG | agreement affix (typically number–gender; cf. PNG) Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding and specifying agreement categories.[6] | [1][16] |
| AGT | AG | agentive case (cf ACT) Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding, as it is not the value of a morphological category.[6] | [21][6][31][36] |
| AJC | adjacent | [48] | |
| AL | ALIEN cn? | alienable possession | [6][36] |
| ALL | ADL, ADDIR | allative case (also 'adlative', 'addirective') | [1][7][23] |
| ALLOC | AL | allocutive agreement | [6][11] |
| AMBIPH | ambiphoric pronoun | [13] | |
| AMP | amplifier | [47] | |
| AN | ANIM | animate gender (cf R; may exclude human referents) | [10][21] |
| ANA | ANAPH | anaphoric demonstrative | [49][15][31][12] |
| AND | andative ('going towards', cf venitive) | [6] | |
| ANT | anterior tense (used for PRF in some traditions) | [21] | |
| ANT | Antecedent (ANTA athematic antecedent, ANTT thematic antecedent) | [27] | |
| ANT | ANTE | in front of. May be equivalent to ANTESS or ANTL. Compounded for ANTE(SS), ANTL(AT), ANTEL etc. if a single morpheme, as ANT-ESS, ANT-LAT, ANT-ELA etc. if not. | [3][2] |
| ANTESS, ANTE | antessive case ('before') | [citation needed] | |
| ANTIC, AC | ACAUS cn? | anticausative | [50][38][6][51] |
| ANTIP, AP | APASS cn?, APS, ANTI, ATP | antipassive voice | [29][50][18][1][45][51][42][24][35][3] |
| AO | agent-orientated verb | [34] | |
| AOR | aorist (= PFV or PST.PFV) | [21] | |
| AP | adverbial particle [note: better to gloss the actual meaning] | [11] | |
| APL | APPL, APP | applicative voice | [1][42][17] |
| APPOS | APP | apposition | [36][52] |
| APPR | apprehensive mood, apprehensional ('lest') | [6][27] | |
| APPROB | approbation | [53] | |
| APRT | PRESP,[citation needed] PRPART | active participle, present participle | [54][29] |
| APRX | APPR | approximative | [10][3] |
| APUD | near, in the vicinity of. May be equivalent to APUDESS or APUDL. Compounded for APUDE(SS), APUDL(AT), APUDEL etc. if a single morpheme, as APUD-ESS, APUD-LAT, APUD-ELA etc. if not. | [3][2] | |
| AR | areal (place/time/situation) | [39][48] | |
| ART | article | [1] | |
| AS | aseverative | [55] | |
| ASP | aspect, aspectual Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding this and specifying the aspect.[6] | [21] | |
| ASRT | ASS cn?, ASST | assertive mood | [6][48][56] |
| ASSOC | ASS cn?, ASSC | associative case (= COM), associative plural (also ASSOC.PL, ASS.PL | [6][27][36][35][16] |
| ASSUM | ASS cn? | assumptive mood, assumed | [6] |
| AST | assistive | [56] | |
| AT | agent trigger (= AF/AV agent focus / voice) | [57] | |
| AT | at (locative) [English preposition as a gloss] | [3] | |
| ATTEN | ATT | attenuative | [1][6] |
| ATR | ATTR | attributive | [26][38] |
| AUD | auditory evidential, auditive | [6][23] | |
| AUG | (a) augmentative; (b) augment (in Bantu noun classes) | [38][6][35] | |
| AUX | auxiliary verb Per Lehmann (2004), this should only be used if it uniquely identifies the morpheme (i.e., there is only one auxiliary morpheme in the language.)[6] | [1] | |
| AVERT | avertive | [48] | |
| AVOL | avolitional | [30] | |
| AVR | AVERS | aversative | [58][6] |
| BE, TB | 'be' verb (a conflation of EXIST and COP) | [citation needed] | |
| BEN | BENEF | benefactive case ('for') | [1][16] |
| BF | beneficiary focus | [43] | |
| BG | BCKG | background | [59][35] |
| BI | bivalent | [55] | |
| C | common gender (C.SG or cs common singular, C.PL or cp common plural) | [21] | |
| -C | 'compass', in languages where relative position is based on cardinal direction rather than left, right, front and behind (ABLC compass ablative, ALLC compass allative) | [27] | |
| CAR | CARIT | caritive case | [60][61] |
| CARD | cardinal numeral (morpheme or grammatical feature) | [6] | |
| CAU | causal-final case | [54] | |
| CAUS | CAU cn?, CS, CSTVZR | causative | [1][33][53] |
| CE | continued event | [47] | |
| CENT | centric case | [51] | |
| CERT | certainty (evidential) | [49][61] | |
| CF | circumstantial focus (= CIRC.FOC) | [38] | |
| CHEZ | at X's place, at the home of (from the French preposition chez) | [3] | |
| CIF | contrary information flow | [62] | |
| CIRC | circumstantial, circumstantive | [6][61] | |
| CIRC | CIRCUM, $ | (empty tag to mark second element of a circumfix) | [1][18] |
| CIRC | circumferential | [3] | |
| CIRCUMESS | circumessive | [citation needed] | |
| CIS | CISL | cislocative | [63][42][47] |
| CIT | citation form ending | [33] | |
| CJT | conjoint | [12] | |
| CLF | CL, CLASS cn? | classifier (base or morpheme) (NCL noun class). Some distinguish CLF classifier from CL class marker.[13] Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding this and instead glossing the category of the classifier.[6] | [1][21][62] |
| CMPD | compound | [citation needed] | |
| CMP | CMPR, COMP cn?, COMPR | comparative | [54][6][3] |
| CMT | commitment | [47] | |
| CN | common noun (e.g. CN.DET common-noun determiner) | [55] | |
| CN | conjunct nominal | [39] | |
| CNEG | connegative | [43] | |
| CNJ | CONJ | conjunction | [10][21] |
| CNS | construct state | [64] | |
| CNSQ | consequential mood | [42] | |
| CNTF | CF | counterfactual conditional | [38][61][62] |
| CO.AG | co-agency | [61] | |
| COL | COLL | collective number | [6][10] |
| COM | COMIT | comitative case ('together with') | [1][3] |
| COMP | CMP, COMPL, C cn? | complementizer | [1][21][61][47] |
| COMP | compassion | [53] | |
| COMPL | CPL cn?, CMP, CMPL, COMPLET | completive aspect | [1][61][3] |
| COMPUL | compulsional | [61] | |
| CON | conative | [48][3] | |
| CON | concrete | [citation needed] | |
| CONC | CNCS, CONCESS | concessive | [6][42][61][3] |
| COND | CND, CON | conditional mood | [1][7][54] |
| CONF | confirmational | [31] | |
| CONJ | conjunctive (interpropositional relation) | [6] | |
| CONJ | conjecture | [61] | |
| CONN | CN, CT | connective particle | [1][38][6][51][65] |
| CONR | CNCT | connector | [12][36] |
| CONS | consecutive; concessive | [12][15] | |
| CONS | consequential | [27] | |
| CONST | constant | [47] | |
| CONT | CNT cn?, CTN cn? | continuous aspect, continuative aspect | [21][38][6] |
| CONT | on a vertical surface. (From English contact.) May be equivalent to CONTESS or CONTL(AT). Compounded for CONTE(SS), CONTL(AT), CONTEL etc. if a single morpheme, as CONT-ESS, CONT-LAT or CONT-DIR, CONT-ELA etc. if not. | [3][2] | |
| CONTR | CNTR cn?, CTR | contrastive, contranstive focus (= CONTR.FOC) | [38][33][51][36][13] |
| COOP | cooperative | [61] | |
| COORD | coordination | [3] | |
| COP | copula, copulative | [1][31] | |
| COR | COREF | coreference, coreferential | [23][51][61] |
| CRAS | crastinal tense ('tomorrow') | [6] | |
| CRD, CARD | cardinal pronoun | [13][34] | |
| CRS | current relevance marker, currently relevant state (as in the perfect) | [66] | |
| CSO | cosubordinator | [67] | |
| CTEXP | contraexpectative | [49] | |
| CTG | CNTG | contingent mood | [49][42][24] |
| CTM | CTEMP, COTEMP | contemporative (at that/the same time) | [49][24][13][34] |
| CUST | CU | customary | [25][67][61] |
| CV | copula verbalizer | [67] | |
| CVB | CONV | converb Lehmann (2004) recommends using 'gerund' (GER) instead.[6] | [1][12] |
| DAT | dative case | [1] | |
| DC | dectic center | [36] | |
| DD | discourse definite | [68] | |
| DE | different event, change of event (cf DS) | [69][15] | |
| DE | discontinued event | [47] | |
| de | dual exclusive (= DU.EX) | [4] | |
| DEAG | deagentive | [55] | |
| DEB | debitive | [61][3] | |
| DECL | DEC cn? | declarative mood | [1] |
| DED | deductive evidential | [33] | |
| DEF | definite | [1] | |
| DEFOC | defocus | [61] | |
| DEI cn?, DEIX, DEIC | deixis, deictic | [10][3] | |
| DEL.IMP | delayed imperative (a command to do s.t. later; cf. IMM) | [70] | |
| DEL | delative case ('off of') | [6] | |
| DEL, DLM[citation needed] | delimiter, delimitative ('just, only') | [47] | |
| DEL | deliberative mood (= obligative mood) | [citation needed] | |
| DEM | demonstrative (DEM1 proximate dem, DEM2 present/given dem, DEM3 remote dem; DEM.ADDR near addressee, DEM.DOWN lower than reference point, DEM.NEAR ~ DEM.NR near, DEM.SP near speaker, DEM.UP higher than reference point) | [10][1][3] | |
| DEN | denizen | [27] | |
| DENOM | denominal | [9] | |
| DEO | DEONT | deontic mood | [58][15][22] |
| DEOBJ | deobjective | [50] | |
| DEP | dependent (as in DEP.FUT) | [25][51] | |
| DEPO | deportmentive | [27] | |
| DEPR | depreciatory, deprecative | [23] | |
| DER | DERIV | derivation, derivational morpheme (e.g. ADJ.DER adjective-derived) | [25][62][54] |
| DES | DESI cn?, DESID cn? | desiderative mood | [21][6][55][15][41] |
| DEST | destinative aspect or case | [21][37] | |
| DET | D | determiner | [1][11] |
| DETR | detransitivizer, detransitive | [6][10] | |
| DFLT | default | [71] | |
| DH | downhill, seaward (cf DR) | [citation needed] | |
| di | dual inclusive (= DU.IN) | [4] | |
| DIF | direct information flow | [62] | |
| DIM | DIMIN | diminutive | [21][9] |
| DIR.EV | DIREV, DIR cn?, DR | direct evidential (= EXP) | [21][6][47] |
| DIR | directive, directional (= LAT); typically suffixed to another element such as AD-, POST-, SUB-, SUPER-. | [21][6][41][36] | |
| DIR | direct case | [21][61] | |
| DIR | directed (DIRA athematic directed, DIRT thematic directed) | [27] | |
| DIS | dislocative | [15] | |
| DISJ | disjunction, disjunctive | [72] | |
| DISSAT | dissatisfaction | [53] | |
| DIST | DIS | distal, distant (DIST.FUT, DIST.PST) | [1][9][24] |
| DISTR | DSTR | (a) distributive case; (b) distributive plural[citation needed] | [1][22] |
| DITR | ditransitive | [citation needed] | |
| DM | DISC | discourse marker | [21][39] |
| DM | demonstrative marker | [13] | |
| DO | DO, DOBJ | direct object(ive) | [21][4] |
| DOM | differential object marking | [73][3] | |
| DON | donative | [27] | |
| DOX | doxastic | [30] | |
| DP | distant past. = REM.PST | [49] | |
| DR | downriver (cf DH toward the water) | [74][51] | |
| DS | DA | different-subject/actor/agent (change of subject) marker (cf DE) | [38][25][15] |
| DSC | DISCNT, DISCONT | discontinuative aspect | [47][38][37] |
| DT | different taxis | [15] | |
| DTR | detrimentary | [42] | |
| DU | DL, d | dual number (M.DU or md masculine dual, F.DU or fd feminine dual) | [1][25][62] |
| DUB | DUBIT | dubitative mood | [6][34] |
| DUR | durative aspect (continuous aspect) | [1] | |
| DY | DYAD cn? | dyadic (e.g. wife-DY 'man and wife') | [75][40] |
| DYN | DYNM | dynamic aspect | [6][13] |
| -E | (used to form various essive cases) | ||
| EC | euphonic consonant (= EP) | [3] | |
| EFF | effector | [16] | |
| EFOC | extra-focal | [55] | |
| EGO | egophoric | [3] | |
| EI | euphonic insertion | [10] | |
| ELA | EL, ELAT | elative case ('out of') | [50][21][29][6][55] |
| EM | extension marker | [3] | |
| EMO | EMOT[citation needed] | emotive | [27][56] |
| EMP | EMPH | emphatic (e.g. emphatic base of pronouns), emphasizer | [21][6][62] |
| ENCL | enclitic. = CLIT. Not a morphological gloss. | [21] | |
| END, FP, FIN | clause-final particle (joshi) Per Lehmann (2004), glosses as 'particle' should be avoided; instead translate/gloss the meaning.[6] | [67][73][22] | |
| ENZ | enunciative | [11] | |
| EP | E, EPENTH | epenthetic morpheme, epenthetical | [10][38][15] |
| EPI, EPIS, EM, EPST | epistemic mood or modality | [15][43] | |
| EPIT | epithet | [22] | |
| ERG | ergative case | [1] | |
| ESS | essive case | [21] | |
| EV | EVI, EVID | evidential (DIR.EV etc.) Per Lehmann (2004), the particular evidential should be specified.[6] | [10][6] |
| EV | euphonic vowel (= EP) | [3] | |
| EVIT | evitative case (= aversive case) | [15][27] | |
| EVT | eventual | [3] | |
| EXAL | DEF | exaltive/deferential (high-status register) | [76][65] |
| EXC | excessive[verify this isn't ex.essive, which is commonly misspelled] | [3] | |
| EXCL, EX | EXC, e | exclusive person (as in 1EX, 1PL.EX, 1e) | [1][9] |
| EXCLAM | EXCLM, EXCL | exclamative | [10][61][22] |
| EX.DUR | excessive duration | [62] | |
| EXESS | exessive case | [77] | |
| EXH, Template:Adh | exhortative, adhortative | [78][18] | |
| EXIST | EXST | existential ('there is') | [21][3] |
| EXO | exocentric case | [51] | |
| EXP, EXPER cn? | experiencer | [21][10][29] | |
| EXP | EXPER cn?, EXP.EV | experiential, eyewitness = direct evidential (cf. WIT) | [21][6] |
| EXPECT | expectational | [61] | |
| EXT | extended aspect, extendible | [25][34] | |
| EXPL, EXP | expletive (dummy / meaningless form) | [15] | |
| EXPR | expressive | [22] | |
| EZF | ezafe | [3] | |
| F | FEM | feminine gender (F.SG or fs feminine singular, F.PL or fp feminine plural) | [1] |
| FA | future actor | [29] | |
| FAC | FACT | factive evidential/mood, factual, factitive | [21][55][61][47] |
| FAM | familiar, as for familiar register (as the T–V distinction) and familiar pronominal | [38][6] | |
| FCL | facilitive | [3] | |
| FILL | morphological filler | [53] | |
| FIN | finite verb | [21] | |
| FIN | finalis | [3] | |
| FMR | former, deceased, 'late' | [47] | |
| FOC | focus (A.FOC agent/actor focus, P.FOC patient focus, etc.) | [1] | |
| FOR | FORM | formal, as for formal register (as the T–V distinction), formal mood | [54][6] |
| FPRT | future participle | [54] | |
| FRACT | fraction, fractional (numeral) | [1] | |
| FREQ | FRQ, FR cn? | frequentative aspect | [6][24] |
| FRUS | FRUST | frustrative | [22][12][23] |
| FS | false start | [12] | |
| FTV | FACT | factative tense (PRES if stative, PAST if not) | [12][27] |
| FUNC | functional | [27] | |
| FUNC | functive case | [37] | |
| FUT | future tense | [1] | |
| FUT.INT, ITF | future intention, intentional future | [61][3] | |
| G | gender (e.g. G4 = the 4th gender) | [1] | |
| GEN | genitive case | [1] | |
| GENR | GNRL, GENER, GENRL | generic, general (e.g. classifier, tense) | [12][23][40][37][13] |
| GER | gerund, gerundive | [21][29] | |
| GF | goal focus | [51] | |
| GIV | given | [79] | |
| GM | gender marker [or specify the gender] | [3] | |
| GNO | GNOMIC | gnomic (generic) aspect | [51][62] |
| GNT | general tense | [3] | |
| GO& | associated motion. GO&DO (go to a place and perform the verb) | [13] | |
| GT | GV | goal trigger (Austronesian; = GF/GV goal focus/voice) | [57][10] |
| gTOP | given topic | [18] | |
| H | Head | [21] | |
| H | hearer/reader | [21] | |
| H | high variety/code, in adiglossic situation | [21] | |
| H | HUM | human, anthropic gender (H.SG or hs human singular, H.PL or hp human plural, ALLH human allative) (cf. R) | [27][21][12][35][26] |
| H | higher animacy, higher object (cf. LA) | [53][13] | |
| HAB | HABIT cn? | habitual aspect | [6][21] |
| HBL | habilitive | [3] | |
| HML | HUM, HBL cn? | humiliative (humble/low-status register) | [6][76] |
| HES | HESIT | hesitation, hesitation particle | [12][67] |
| HEST | hesternal tense ('yesterday') | [6] | |
| HIST | historic(al), as in historical present or past historic tense | [12] | |
| HOD | hodiernal tense ('today' in HOD.FUT hodernial future, HOD.PST hodernial past) | [6] | |
| HON | honorific | [21] | |
| HOR | horizon of interest | [3] | |
| HOR | horizontal | [18] | |
| HORT | hortative | [6] | |
| HR.EV | heard evidential (= AUD) | [61] | |
| HRS | HSY | hearsay/reported evidential | [67][42][23] |
| HYP | HYPO, HYPOTH cn? | hypothetical mood | [15][21][6][31] |
| I | inflected (AUX.I inflected auxiliary) | [62] | |
| IA | involuntary agent | [55] | |
| IA | indirect agent(ive) | [18] | |
| IA | instrumental advancement | [29] | |
| IAM | iamitive | [3] | |
| IC | involuntary causative | [10] | |
| ICOM | involuntary comitative | [47] | |
| ID | identical (~ NID) | [citation needed] | |
| IDENT | identificational | [34] | |
| IDENTIF | identifiable | [13] | |
| IDEO | IDPH, IDEOPH | ideophone (≈ MIM) | [11][31][12][23][80] |
| IF | instrument focus | [43] | |
| IFUT | indefinite future | [62] | |
| IGNOR | ignorative | [61] | |
| ILL | ILLA | illative case ('into') | [21][56] |
| IM | interrogative marker | [11] | |
| IMM | IM, IMMED | immediate, as in IM.IMP immediate imperative mood, IM.FUT near future tense, IM.PAST immediate past | [6][25] |
| IMP | IMPER | imperative mood | [1][9] |
| IMPF | IMPERF, IMPRF | imperfect (= PST.IPFV) | [21][12][3] |
| IMPOSS | modal impossibility | [53] | |
| IMPR | IMPREC cn? | imprecative mood | [81][30] |
| IMPRS | IMPERS, IMPR cn?, IMPS cn?, IMPL | impersonal, impersonal verb | [38][6][45][61][62][20] |
| IN | in a container. May be equivalent to INESS or INL. Compounded for INE(SS), INL(AT), INEL etc. if a single morpheme, as IN-ESS, IN-LAT, IN-ELA etc. if not. | [3][2] | |
| INAB | impotential | [30] | |
| INABL | inablative | [20] | |
| INACT | inactive | [3] | |
| INAL | inalienable possession | [10][12] | |
| INAN | INANIM | inanimate gender | [10][21][3] |
| INC | increment | [27] | |
| INCEP | INC, INCP, IP | inceptive aspect | [82][12][40][48] |
| INCH | INCHO | inchoative aspect | [6][82] |
| INCL, IN | INC | inclusive person (as 1IN or 1PL.IN) | [1] |
| INCP, INCIP | incipient (INCPA athematic incipient, INCPT thematic incipient) | [27] | |
| IND | INDIC | indicative mood | [1][11] |
| INDET | indeterminate | [83] | |
| INDH | indefinite human ('somebody') | [84] | |
| INDIR | indirect | [61][3] | |
| INDN | indefinite non-human ('something') | [84] | |
| INEL | inelative case ('from within') | [7][37] | |
| INESS | INE cn?, IN | inessive case ('in') | [6][11][29] |
| INF | infinitive | [1] | |
| INFL | inflectional | [21] | |
| INFR | INFER cn? | inferential mood | [6] |
| ING | ingressive case | [24] | |
| INS | INST, INSTR | instrumental case | [1][82][18] |
| INS | instantiated | [27] | |
| INT | INTER cn? | interrogative (= Q) | [38][6] |
| INTER | in a solid object. May be equivalent to INTERESS or INTERL. Compounded for INTERE(SS), INTERL(AT), INTEREL etc. if a single morpheme, as INTER-ESS, INTER-LAT, INTER-ELA etc. if not. | [3][2] | |
| INTERESS | interessive | ||
| INTERP | interpellative mood | [81] | |
| INTF | interfix | [50] | |
| INTL | INTEN, INT | intentional | [78][62][47] |
| INTJ | INTERJ | interjection | [7][21] |
| INTRV | introversive | [55] | |
| INTS | INT cn?, INTEN, INTENS | intensifier, intensive | [38][6][10][61] |
| INTV | INTENTV | intentive | [30][13] |
| INV | inverse | [38][6] | |
| INVOL | involuntative/involitive (cf. AVOL) | [3][22] | |
| IO | IO, IOBJ | indirect object(ive) | [45][4][18] |
| IP | immediate past. = IM.PST | [23] | |
| IPD | impeditive | [47] | |
| IPS | (a) impersonalizer (AGIPS agent impersonalizer); (b) impersonal passive | [10][31] | |
| IRR | IRLS cn?, IRREAL | irrealis mood | [1][22] |
| IRREL, IRRELEV | irrelevence (= NRELEV | [61] | |
| IS | indirect speech | [21] | |
| IS | impersonal subject | [10] | |
| ITER | IT, ITE | iterative aspect | [21][9][15] |
| ITIV | itive | [18] | |
| J | thematic | [27] | |
| JUS | JUSS | jussive mood | [6][47] |
| KIN | kinship suffix | [12][13] | |
| KNWN | known | [35] | |
| -L | (used to form various lative cases) | ||
| L | low variety/code, in adiglossic situation | [21] | |
| L | local (exophoric) person (= 1/2) | ||
| L2 | B | tags translation as code-switching. | [21][37] |
| LA | lower animacy (cf. H) | [13] | |
| LAT | lative case (= MVMT, direction) | [6] | |
| LENGTH | vowel or consonant emphasis lengthening | [citation needed] | |
| LEX | lexical-thematic (affix) | [48] | |
| LF | LV | locative focus (locative voice) | [43] |
| LIG | ligature, possessor ligature | [12][43][13] | |
| LIM | limitative | [58][56] | |
| LL | land gender | [13] | |
| LM | landmark | [34] | |
| LNK | LK cn? | linker, linking element: an interfix or a ligature | [38][6][36] |
| LOC | locative case (includes essive case) | [1] | |
| LOG | logophoric | [6] | |
| LOQ | delocutive | [34] | |
| LS | lexical stem | [3] | |
| M | MASC | masculine gender (M.SG or ms masculine singular, M.PL or mp masculine plural) | [1] |
| M- | modal case | [13] | |
| MAL | malefactive | [23][15] | |
| MAN | MNR | manner; mood–aspect–negation | [6][55][3] |
| MDT | meditative | [3] | |
| M.E. | multiple event | [61] | |
| MEA | measure | [47] | |
| MED | mediative; medial (e.g. medial past, medial demonstrative = GIV) | [9][31][3] | |
| MID | MD, MP | middle voice, medio-passive | [38][6][34][68] |
| MIM | mimetic (≈ IDEO) | [80] | |
| MIN | minimal number | [67][13] | |
| MIR | ADM | (ad)mirative | [51][15][48][61] |
| MIRN | negative mirative | [15] | |
| MIS | miscellaneous gender | [45] | |
| MIT | mitigation | [30] | |
| MOD | modal case (modalis) | [61][24][37] | |
| MOD | MDL | mood, modal | [21][62][56][37] |
| MOD | modifier | [21][43][37] | |
| MOM | momentane (single-event verb) | [38][10] | |
| MONO | monofocal person | [38] | |
| MOV | MVMT | movement | [42][23] |
| MSD | MASD | maṣdar (verbal noun) | [26][37][3] |
| MUL | MULT, MLT,[citation needed] MLTP[citation needed] | multiplicative case | [54][35] |
| MULT | multal | [37] | |
| N | NEUT | neuter gender (N.SG or ns neuter singular [cf. NSG non-singular], N.PL or np neuter plural) | [1][50] |
| N | noun (as a gloss in NZ nominalizer) | [50] | |
| N- | n-, NON- | non-, in-, un-, a- (e.g. NSG / nSG non-singular, NPST / nPST non-past, NF / nF non-feminine, NFIN / nFIN non-finite, NPOSS / nPOS non-possessed, N1 / n1 non-1st person [i.e. 2/3], NPFV / nPFV imperfective) | [1][6][12][35][3][11] |
| -N | name (PN place name or proper name, FN feminine name, MN masculine name, GN geographic name[40]) | ||
| NARR | NAR cn? | narrative tense | [38][6] |
| NCOMPL | ICP cn?, INC, INCMP cn?, INCPL, INCMPL cn? | incompletive aspect | [38][6][61][47][13] |
| NCTM | ICM | incontemporative (perfective appositional) | [24] |
| NDEF | INDF, IDF, INDEF | indefinite | [1][10][82] |
| NEC | necessitative | [50] | |
| NEG | NOT | negation, negative | [1][85] |
| NEGAT | negatory | [27] | |
| NEUT | NEUTR | neutral aspect | [12][37] |
| NF | non-final form | [68][17] | |
| NFC | non-finite conditional | [3] | |
| NFIN | NF cn? | non-finite (nonfinite verb, non-finite clause) (NF may be ambiguous with non-feminine) | [6] |
| NH | NHUM, nH | non-human | [6][12][3] |
| NMZ | NMLZ, NLZ, NOMZ, NM, NML, NOM, NOMI, NOMIN, NOML, NR, NZ [cn?] | nominalizer/nominalization | [11][86][1][22][24][62][65][35][37][47][85] |
| NOM | NM | nominative case | [1][33] |
| NONDUM | 'not yet' | [3] | |
| NONIN | noninstigational | [23] | |
| N/P | neuter plural | [34] | |
| NPC | non-past completive | [34] | |
| NPFV | IPFV, IPF, IMP, IMPFV, IMPERFV, IMPF | imperfective aspect | [1][9][68][11] |
| NPP | non-past progressive | [34] | |
| NR | near (as in NR.DIST 'near distal') | [49] | |
| NS | non-subject (see oblique case) | [51] | |
| NTR | INTR cn?, INTRANS, ITR | intransitive (covers an intransitive case for the S argument) | [1][16][3] |
| NTS | non-topical subject | [35] | |
| NUM | numeral, numerative | [21][3] | |
| NVIS | INVIS | non-visual (evidential); invisible (deixis) | [12][13] |
| NX.PST | non-experienced past | [56] | |
| -O | object(ive) (ABLO objective ablative, EVITO objective evitative), 3mO 3m object | [27][22] | |
| OBJ | OBJV, OB[citation needed] | object, object agreement; objective case | [21][6][10] |
| OBL | oblique case | [1] | |
| OBLIG | OBL | obligative mood | [53][61] |
| OBV | obviative | [38][6] | |
| OFC | object focus. = O.FOC or P.FOC | [56] | |
| OM | object marker | [11] | |
| ONOM | onomatopoeia | [47] | |
| OPT | optative mood | [21] | |
| ORD | ordinal numeral | [6] | |
| ORD | ordinary | [87] | |
| ORIG | origin, originative | [27][13][34] | |
| OS | oblique stem | [3] | |
| P | pre-, post- (P.HOD prehodiernal, P.CRAS postcrastinal) | [62] | |
| -P | possessor: 1P, 2P, 3fP, 3mP (1st, 2nd, 3rd masc & fem possessor) | [22] | |
| PASS | PAS cn? | passive voice | [1] |
| PAT | patientive (= UND) Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding, as it is not the value of a morphological category.[6] | [21] | |
| PAUS | pausal | [12] | |
| PAU | PA cn?, PAUC cn?, pc | paucal number (M.PAU or mpc masculine paucal, F.PAU or fpc feminine paucal) | [6][15][49] |
| PC | past completive | [34] | |
| PCP | completive participle | [47] | |
| PE | perpetuity | [15] | |
| PE | previous event | [83] | |
| pe | plural exclusive (= PL.EX) | [4] | |
| PEG | pegative case (a special case for the giver) | [12] | |
| PEJ | pejorative | [15][24] | |
| PERAMB | perambulative | [49] | |
| PERL | PER cn? | perlative case ('per', using) | [6][34] |
| PERM | permission, permissive mood | [38] | |
| PERS | personal (PERS.EV personal evidential / personal experience, PERS.AG personal agency, PERS.EXP personal experience); personal article (= PERS.ART) | [21][43][61] | |
| PERS | persistive | [35] | |
| PERSE | personal experience (= PERS.EV) | [16] | |
| PF | PV | patient focus, patient voice | [43][44] |
| PFV | PF, PERFV | perfective aspect | [1][48][16] |
| PHAB | past habitual | [34] | |
| PHAS | phasal aspect | [47] | |
| pi | plural inclusive (= PL.IN) | [4] | |
| PIMPV | past imperfective | [53] | |
| PL | p, PLUR | plural (but 1PL also 1p, 3PL.M also 3mp) | [1][29] |
| PLUP | PLU, PPERF, PLUPERF cn?, PLUPRF, PLPF, PPF[citation needed] | pluperfect | [21][18][6][12][3][29] |
| PLUR | PLU, PLR, PL | pluractional (= VPL verbal plural) | [35][31][56][22] |
| PM | predicate marker | [11] | |
| PN, PR | proper noun (e.g. PN.DET proper-noun determiner) | [55] | |
| PO | primary object | [6] | |
| PO | patient-orientated verb | [34] | |
| PODIR | postdirective (= postlative) | [7] | |
| POEL | POSTEL | postelative case | [7] |
| POESS | POSTE | postessive case ('after') | [7][37] |
| POL | polite register | [21] | |
| POSS | POS | possessive, possessor | [1][9] |
| POSB | POSSB | possible, modal possibility | [38][53] |
| POSSD | possessed | [13] | |
| POST, POSTP | postposition, postpositional case | [38] | |
| POST | PO- | postlocative (behind). May be equivalent to POSTESS or POSTL. Compounded for POSTE(SS) (POESS), POSTL(AT) (PODIR), POSTEL (POEL) etc. if a single morpheme, as POST-ESS, POST-LAT or POST-DIR, POST-ELA etc. if not. | [26][3][2][7] |
| IN | |||
| POSTL | PODIR | postlative case, or 'postdirective' | [7] |
| POT | POTEN cn? | potential mood (cf. VER) | [21][6] |
| PP | (a) predicative possessive particle; (b) present progressive | [40][17] | |
| PPA | active perfect participle | [11] | |
| PPFV | past perfective (= perfect) | [53] | |
| PPP | (a) past passive participle; (b) past perfect participle | [10][11] | |
| PPRT | PPART, PP[citation needed] | passive participle, past participle | [56][54] |
| PREC | precative mood (requests) | [6] | |
| PREC | precondition (PRECA athematic precondition, PRECT thematic precondition) | [27] | |
| PREC | precise | [15] | |
| PRED | predicative affix, predicative | [1][7][13] | |
| PREDICT | prediction | [61] | |
| PREP | preposition, prepositional case | [21] | |
| PRET | PRT cn? | preterite (= PFV.PST) | [1] |
| PRF | PFT, PERF, PF cn? | perfect | [21][35][6][82] |
| PRFRM | performative | [23] | |
| PRF | PERF, PF | perfect (= RET) | [1] |
| PRIOR | prior | [27] | |
| PRIV | PRV cn?, PRVT | privative case | [6][3] |
| PRO | PN, PRN, PRON | pronominal base, proform | [21][12][35][47] |
| PROB | probability | [62] | |
| PROG | PRG | progressive aspect | [1][47] |
| PROH | PROHIB cn? | prohibitive mood ('don't!') | [1][21] |
| PROL | PROLAT, PRL | prolative case (= VIA) | [6][12][3] |
| PROP | PROPR cn? | proprietive case | [38][6][50][27] |
| PROPOS | propositive mood (inclusive jussive) | [87] | |
| PROS | prosecutive case ('across', 'along') | [88] | |
| PROSP | PRSP cn? | prospective aspect or mood | [6][65][37] |
| PROT | protasis | [62] | |
| PROX | proximal demonstrative; proximate | [1] | |
| PRS | PRES | present tense | [1][82] |
| PRSC | prescriptive | [40] | |
| ps- | pseudo: psAP pseudo-antipassive, psPASS pseudo-passive | [18] | |
| PS | passing state | [15] | |
| PSA | previous same agent of v.t. (PSS previous same subject) | [47] | |
| PSS | previous same subject of v.i. (PSA previous same agent) | [47] | |
| PSSM | possessum (impersonal) | [31] | |
| PSSR | possessor | [42] | |
| PST | PAST, PA | past tense | [1][34] |
| PT | patient trigger (= PF/PV patient focus/voice) | [57] | |
| PT | potent case inflection | [13] | |
| PTCL | PRT, PTC, PT, PTL, PART | particle Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding this and instead translating/glossing the meaning.[6] | [38][21][54][7][8][26] |
| PTCP | pcp}} cn?, PPL, PTCPL, PARTIC, PPLE | participle, participle marker | [1][21][6][8][26][16][68][11] |
| PTV | PRTV, PAR, PART, PTT | partitive case | [21][6][8][82] |
| PUNCT | PNC, PU, PNCL | punctual aspect, punctiliar | [38][6][9][23][15] |
| PURP | purposive case | [1] | |
| PV | pivot form/nominal | [34] | |
| PVB | PREV, PRV, PV | preverb | [12][38] |
| Q | QUES, QUEST, QP | question word or particle (= INT) | [1][9][51] |
| QM | quantity marker | [16] | |
| QU, QM | question marker | [1][51] | |
| QUAL | qualifier | [48][35] | |
| QUANT | QNT | quantifier | [21][3] |
| QUOT | QUO | quotative (quotative case or quotative mood) | [1][85] |
| QV | quotative verb | [67] | |
| R | rational gender (thinking beings) (R.SG or rs rational singular, R.PL or rp rational plural) | [citation needed] | |
| R.EXT | root extension | [3] | |
| R/A | realis/assertive | [13] | |
| RAR | raritive | [37] | |
| RE | refactive | [3] | |
| REAL | RLS, RL, R | realis mood | [6][31][56][35] |
| REC | REC.PST | recent past tense | [6] |
| RECP | RCP, RECIP, REC cn? | reciprocal voice | [1][27] |
| RED | RDP, REDUP, RDPL, DUP[citation needed] | reduplication, reduplicant (avoid if possible; instead gloss with meaning of reduplicated element) | [38][12][13][56] |
| REF | RFR cn? | referential | [25][51] |
| REFL | RFL, RFLX, REFLX, REF | reflexive (reflexive pronoun, reflexive voice) | [1][45][42][62][34] |
| REG | regal (e.g. pronouns) | [22] | |
| REG | regressive | [22] | |
| REL | (a) relative clause marker (RELZ relativizer); (b) relative pronoun affix; (c) relational (d) relative case | [1][10][16][29] | |
| REL.FUT | relative future | [61] | |
| RELEV | relevance | [61] | |
| REM | RM cn? | remote: REM.PST or REM.P remote past tense, REM.FUT remote future tense; also REM remote past tense | [38][6][25][11] |
| REP | REPET | repetitive aspect (cf ITER) | [6][21][3] |
| RES | RESU | resultative | [1][85] |
| RSM, RES[citation needed] | resumptive marker, resumptive pronoun | [35] | |
| RESP | respect | [38] | |
| RESP | responsive | [61] | |
| REST | restrictive | [83] | |
| RET | retrospective (recollection; synonym for 'perfect' in some traditions) | [65] | |
| REV | reversative, reversive | [15][68] | |
| R/M | reflexive/middle voice | [22] | |
| ROOT | R, $ | (empty tag to mark second element of a divided root) | [1][3][18] |
| ROY | royal (e.g. pronouns) | [22] | |
| RP | (a) recent past, = REC.PST (b) remote past, = REM.PST | [23][17] | |
| RPC | remote past continuous | [34] | |
| RPRT | REP cn? | reported evidential (= HSY); reportative | [6][21][61][47] |
| RQ | RHET | rhetorical question | [3][15][43] |
| RR, R | reflexive/reciprocal | [53][47] | |
| RSN | reason | [42] | |
| -S | subjective (ABLS subjective ablative, EVITS subjective evitative), 3fS 3f subject | [27][22] | |
| SAL | salient | [15] | |
| SAP | speech-act participant | [18] | |
| SBEL | SUBEL | subelative case | [7] |
| SBEN | self-benefactive | [36] | |
| SBESS | SUBE cn?, SUBESS | subessive case ('under') | [7][6] |
| SBJ | SUBJ, S, S/A, SBJT | subject, subject agreement | [1][21][82][47][89] |
| SJV | SBJV, SUBJ cn?, SB cn? | subjunctive mood (SUB and SUBJ may be ambiguous with 'subject') | [17][1][21][11] |
| SCEP | sceptical | [61] | |
| SE | same event (cf SS) (SE.DA same event, different argument/subject) | [69][15] | |
| SEC | second-hand (SEC.EV) | [61] | |
| SEJ | sejunct (opposite of conjunct) | [27] | |
| SEM | SMLF | semelfactive aspect ('once') | [90][6] |
| SENS | sensory evidential mood (= VIS+AUD) | [6] | |
| SEP | spatial separation | [3] | |
| SEQ | sequential | [38][6] | |
| SER | serial marker | [10][13] | |
| SFOC | sentence focus | [34] | |
| SG | s, SING | singular (but 1SG also 1s, 3SG.M also 3ms) | [1][29] |
| SGV | SGT, SING, SINGL | singulative number, singulative nominal | [6][31][35] |
| SH | subject honorific | [65] | |
| SIM | SIMUL | simultaneous aspect, simultaneity | [37][38][6][10][83] |
| SIMV | SIM, SML | similative (e.g. plural based on prototypical member of group) | [37][10][83][3] |
| SM | series marker | [3] | |
| SMBL | SEMBL | semblative | [13][45][27] |
| SOC | sociative causative | [83] | |
| SP | SPEC, SPECFC | specific, specifying (NSP, NSPEC nonspecific) | [6][23][40][18] |
| SP | sentence particle (= FP). See usage note at particle and FP. | [62] | |
| SP | simple past | [citation needed] | |
| SP | speaker: SP.PROX speaker-proximate, DEM.SP demontrative near speaker | [13][3] | |
| SPECFR | SPEC | specifier | [21][23] |
| SPEC | speculative mood | [21] | |
| SPKR | speaker-anchored | [36] | |
| SR | same referent | [13] | |
| SRP | self-reporting pronoun | [67] | |
| SS | SA | same-subject/actor/argument marker (cf SE) | [38][6][25][15] |
| STAT | STV, ST, STA | stative aspect, stative verb | [6][10][43] |
| STEM | ST, $ | (empty tag to mark second element of a divided stem) | [1][55][18] |
| STIM | stimulative | [23] | |
| SUB | sublocative (under). May be equivalent to SUBESS or SUBL. Compounded for SUBE(SS) (SBESS), SUBL(AT) (SBDIR), SUBEL (SBEL) etc. if a single morpheme, as SUB-ESS, SUB-LAT or SUB-DIR, SUB-ELA etc. if not. | [26][3][2][7] | |
| SUBL | SBDIR | sublative case ('onto', 'down onto'), also 'subdirective' | [54][7] |
| SUBR | SUB, SUBORD, SBRD, SR [cn] | subordinator | [21][38][6][42] |
| SUBST | substitutive | [3] | |
| SUBZ,[citation needed] SBST | substantivizer (= nominalizer) | [37][16] | |
| SUC | successive ('then') | [citation needed] | |
| SUP | supine | [21] | |
| SUPL | SUP cn?, SRDIR, SPR | superlative, also 'superdirective' | [21][7][54] |
| SUP, SUPL cn? | supplicative | [21] | |
| SUPEL | SREL, SUPEREL | superelative case ('on') | [37][7] |
| SUPER | SUP- | superlocative (behind). May be equivalent to SUPERESS or SUPERL. Compounded for SUPERE(SS) (SUPESS), SUPERL(AT) (SUPDIR), SUPEREL (SUPEL) etc. if a single morpheme, as SUPER-ESS, SUPER-LAT or SUPER-DIR, SUPER-ELA etc. if not. | [26][3][2][7] |
| SUPESS | SUPE cn?, SRESS, SPRESS, SUPER, SUPERESS cn? | superessive case ('on') | [6][21][7][3][18] |
| SURP | surprise | [43] | |
| -T | trigger (used for AT, PT, GT etc.) | [57] | |
| -T | thematic (TAMT thematic tense-aspect-mood, ANTT thematic antecedent, etc.) | [27] | |
| TA | T/A | tense/aspect | [10][45][37] |
| TAG | [[question tag}} | [3] | |
| TAM | tense–aspect–mood | [10][55] | |
| TEL | telic aspect (cf PFV) (A:TEL anticipatory telic, C:TEL culminatory telic) | [91][35][13] | |
| TEMP | TEM | temporal case | [21][54] |
| TENT | tentative | [37] | |
| TERM | TER | terminative (terminalis) case | [21][54] |
| TF | theme focus | [38] | |
| TH | thematic element (e.g. thematic consonant) | [10][27][3] | |
| TJ | trajector | [34] | |
| TM- | tense marker: TMhrs, TMdays, TMyrs for events hours, days, years ago | [22] | |
| TNS | T, TENS | tense Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding this and specifying the tense.[6] | [21][45][13] |
| TOP | TP, TPC | topic marker (TOPP topical patientive) | [1][25][12][35] |
| TOT | totalitative, totality | [10][15] | |
| TR | TRANS cn?, TRNS | transitive verb (TRZ transitivizer); transitive case (rare) | [1] |
| TR | transitional sound | [35] | |
| TRANSF | transformative | [12] | |
| TRANSP | (transposition of deictic zero away from ego, e.g. 'uphill' from an object rather than from the speaker) | [92] | |
| TRANSL | TRANS, TRNSL, TRANSLV cn?, TRA, TRAL | (a) translative case (becoming); (b) translocative (across; may be compounded for e.g. ANT-TRANS pass in front of, POST-TRANS pass behind, SUB-TRANS pass under) | [6][21][42][54][3][2] |
| TRI | TRL, TR [cn] | trial number | [6][4] |
| TRIP | retriplication [note: usually best to gloss with the meaning and ⟨~⟩] | [93] | |
| TRM | transmutative | [42] | |
| TRN | transnumeral (neither SG nor PL) | [35][11] | |
| TRPOSS | transfer of possession | [12] | |
| TRZ | TZ | transitivizer | [56][11] |
| TS | thematic suffix | [3] | |
| TV | thematic vowel | [56] | |
| TVF | truth-value focus | [51] | |
| U | uninflected (AUX.U uninflected auxiliary) | [62] | |
| UA | unit augmented | [13] | |
| UF | uncertain future | [67] | |
| UGR | UND cn? | undergoer role (cf PAT) Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding, as it is not the value of a morphological category.[6] | [6][25][45][1] |
| UF | undergoer focus | [43] | |
| UH | uphill, inland (= AFW. cf UR.) | [citation needed] | |
| UNIF | unified | [4] | |
| UNSP | UNSPEC | unspecified, unspecified tense | [10][6][35][13] |
| UNW | 'unwillingness' marker | [55] | |
| UR | upriver (cf UH away from the water) | [51] | |
| USIT | usitative, for usual, customary or typical events | [45][34] | |
| UTIL | utilitive | [27] | |
| VAL | valency-increasing; valence marker | [10][18] | |
| VB | V | verbal (as a gloss in VBZ, VZ verbalizer, VPL verbal plural = PLUR, VCL verb class) | [21][6][50][83] |
| VBZ | VBLZR, VERB | verbalizer | [86][41][6][56] |
| VCL | verb class marker | [13] | |
| VCO | voluntary comitative | [47] | |
| Vd | VD, v.d. | verb, ditransitive (e.g. as a covert category) | [94] |
| VE | VEG | vegetable (food) gender. Some authors distinguish VE gender from VEG food affix.[13] | [45] |
| VEN | venitive (coming towards; cf andative) | [6] | |
| VENT | ventive | [18] | |
| VER | veridical, veridical mood (certain conditional; cf. POT) | [51] | |
| VERIF | verificative | [23][3] | |
| VERS | versionizer | [3] | |
| VERT | vertical | [12][35] | |
| VIA | vialis case | [42][49] | |
| VIRT | virtual mode | [95] | |
| VIS | visible, visual (PRES.VIS present visual) | [12][35] | |
| Vi | VI, v.i. | verb, intransitive (e.g. as a covert category) | [94] |
| VN | verbal noun | [12][9] | |
| VOC | vocative case | [1] | |
| VOL | volitive mood; volitional (cf. AVOL avolitional) | [78][83] | |
| Vr | VR, v.r. | verb, reflexive (e.g. as a covert category) | [94] |
| VSM | verb-stem marker | [47][13] | |
| Vt | VT, v.t. | verb, transitive (e.g. as a covert category) | [94][10] |
| WH.EX | exclamatory wh- clause ('what a ...!') | [citation needed] | |
| WH | interrogative pronoun (wh-word), wh- agreement | [37][3] | |
| WHQ | WH.Q | wh- question | [3][96] |
| WIT | witnessed evidential (cf. EXP) | [23][3] | |
| WP | witnessed past | [56] | |
| YNQ, PQ | yes–no question, polar question | [96][3] | |
| -Z | -(al)izer (e.g. ADJZ adjectivizer, NZ nominalizer, TRZ transitivizer, VBZ verbalizer) | ||
| ZO | zoic gender (animals) | [97] |
Kinship
It is common to abbreviate grammatical morphemes but to translate lexical morphemes. However, kin relations commonly have no precise translation, and in such cases they are often glossed with anthropological abbreviations. There are two competing conventions, of one-letter and two-letter abbreviations:[98][99]
| Gloss | Meaning | Equivalents | |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | Au | aunt | = MZ or FZ / MoSi or FaSi |
| B | Br | brother | |
| C | Ch | child | = S or D / So or Da |
| Cu | cousin | = MZD, MZS, MBD, MBS, FZD, FZS, FBD, FBS | |
| = MoSiDa, MoSiSo, MoBrDa, MoBrSo, FaSiDa, FaSiSo, FaBrDa, FaBrSo | |||
| D | Da | daughter | |
| e | o | elder/older (e.g. eB, eZ)[35] | |
| ex | ex- (e.g. exH, exW) | ||
| F | Fa | father | |
| F | female kin | ||
| G | Gr | grand- | e.g. GF = MF or FF; GS = SS or DS |
| e.g. GrFa = MoFa or FaFa; GrSo = SoSo or DaSo | |||
| Gen | generation | (see below) | |
| H | Hu | husband | |
| LA | La | -in-law | e.g. BLA = WB or HB or ZH / BrLa = WiBr or HuBr or SiHu |
| M | Mo | mother | |
| M | male kin | ||
| Ne | nephew | = BrSo or SiSo | |
| Ni | niece | = BrDa or SiDa | |
| P | Pa | parent | = M or F / Mo or Fa |
| S | So | son | |
| SI | Sb | sibling | = B or Z / Br or Si |
| SP | Sp | spouse | = H or W / Hu or Wi |
| st | step- | ||
| U | Un | uncle | = MB or FZ / MoBr or FaBr |
| W | Wi | wife | |
| y | younger (e.g. yB, yZ) | ||
| Z | Si | sister | |
| (m.s.) | male speaking | (when kin terms differ by gender of speaker) | |
| (f.s.) | female speaking | ||
| μ | ♂ | male ego | (when kin terms differ by gender of the person they are related to) |
| φ | ♀ | female ego | |
| ∥ | parallel | (across a brother–brother or sister–sister link) | |
| + | cross | (across a brother–sister link) | |
| os | opposite sex (of ego) | (some langs distinguish siblings of the same and opposite gender from the ego; e.g. for some Tok Pisin speakers, a woman's susa ('sister') is her brother and her brata ('brother') is her sister) | |
| ss | same sex (as ego) | ||
These are concatenated, e.g. MFZS = MoFaSiSo 'mother's father's sister's son', yBWF = yBrWiFa 'younger brother's wife's father'. 'Elder/older' and 'younger' may affix the entire string, e.g. oFaBrSo (an older cousin – specifically father's brother's son), MBDy (a younger cousin – specifically mother's brother's daughter) or a specific element, e.g. MFeZS 'mother's father's elder sister's son', HMeB 'husband's mother's elder brother'.
'Gen' indicates the generation relative to the ego, with ∅ for the same (zero) generation. E.g. Gen∅Ch (child of someone in the same generation, i.e. of a sibling or cousin); ♂Gen+1F (female one generation up, i.e. mother or aunt, of a male); Gen−2M (male two generations down, i.e. grandson or grandnephew).
'Cross' and 'parallel' indicate a change or lack of change in gender in the chain of relations. Parallel aunts and uncles are MoSi and FaBr; cross-aunts and uncles are FaSi and MoBr. Cross-cousins (+Cu) and parallel cousins (∥Cu) are children of the same. Parallel niece and nephew are children of a man's brother or woman's sister; cross-niece and nephew are the opposite. 'Elder' and 'younger' occurs before these markers: o∥Cu, y+Cu, and the gender of the ego comes at the very beginning, e.g. ♂o∥CuF, ♀y+CuM.
Sources may mix the two sets of abbreviations, e.g. Fa Mo Br (father mother brother) with Z S D (sister son daughter).[99]
Literature
- Leipzig Glossing Rules
- Payne, Thomas E. 1997. Describing Morphosyntax.
- Summary of case forms: Blake, Barry J. (2001) [1994]. Case (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 195–206.
References used but not cited above
[Temporary section. Once these are used as direct refs above, they should be removed from here.]
- Aikhenvald, Alexandra. 2004. Evidentiality.
- Helasvuo, Marja-Liisa. Argument splits in Finnish grammar and discourse.
- Kroeber, Paul. 1999. The Salish language family: reconstructing syntax.
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